1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates to the inhibition of histone deacetylase. More particularly, the invention relates to compounds and methods for inhibiting histone deacetylase enzymatic activity.
2. Summary of the Related Art
In eukaryotic cells, nuclear DNA associates with histones to form a compact complex called chromatin. The histones constitute a family of basic proteins which are generally highly conserved across eukaryotic species. The core histones, termed H2A, H2B, H3, and H4, associate to form a protein core. DNA winds around this protein core, with the basic amino acids of the histones interacting with the negatively charged phosphate groups of the DNA. Approximately 146 base pairs of DNA wrap around a histone core to make up a nucleosome particle, the repeating structural motif of chromatin.
Csordas, Biochem. J., 286: 23-38 (1990) teaches that histones are subject to posttranslational acetylation of the α,ε-amino groups of N-terminal lysine residues, a reaction that is catalyzed by histone acetyl transferase (HAT1). Acetylation neutralizes the positive charge of the lysine side chain, and is thought to impact chromatin structure. Indeed, Taunton et al., Science, 272: 408-411 (1996), teaches that access of transcription factors to chromatin templates is enhanced by histone hyperacetylation. Taunton et al. further teaches that an enrichment in underacetylated histone H4 has been found in transcriptionally silent regions of the genome.
Histone acetylation is a reversible modification, with deacetylation being catalyzed by a family of enzymes termed histone deacetylases (HDACs). Grozinger et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96: 4868-4873 (1999), teaches that HDACs is divided into two classes, the first represented by yeast Rpd3-like proteins, and the second represented by yeast Hda1-like proteins. Grozinger et al. also teaches that the human HDAC1, HDAC2, and HDAC3 proteins are members of the first class of HDACs, and discloses new proteins, named HDAC4, HDAC5, and HDAC6, which are members of the second class of HDACs. Kao et al., Genes & Dev., 14: 55-66 (2000), discloses HDAC7, a new member of the second class of HDACs. Van den Wyngaert, FEBS, 478: 77-83 (2000) discloses HDAC8, a new member of the first class of HDACs.
Richon et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95: 3003-3007 (1998), discloses that HDAC activity is inhibited by trichostatin A (TSA), a natural product isolated from Streptomyces hygroscopicus, and by a synthetic compound, suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA). Yoshida and Beppu, Exper. Cell Res., 177: 122-131 (1988), teaches that TSA causes arrest of rat fibroblasts at the G1 and G2 phases of the cell cycle, implicating HDAC in cell cycle regulation. Indeed, Finnin et al., Nature, 401: 188-193 (1999), teaches that TSA and SAHA inhibit cell growth, induce terminal differentiation, and prevent the formation of tumors in mice. Suzuki et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,174,905, EP 0847992, JP 258863/96, and Japanese Application No. 10138957, disclose benzamide derivatives that induce cell differentiation and inhibit HDAC. Delorme et al., WO 01/38322 and PCT IB01/00683, disclose additional compounds that serve as HDAC inhibitors.
The molecular cloning of gene sequences encoding proteins with HDAC activity has established the existence of a set of discrete HDAC enzyme isoforms. Grozinger et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96:4868-4873 (1999), teaches that HDACs may be divided into two classes, the first represented by yeast Rpd3-like proteins, and the second represented by yeast Hda1-like proteins. Grozinger et al. also teaches that the human HDAC-1, HDAC-2, and HDAC-3 proteins are members of the first class of HDACs, and discloses new proteins, named HDAC-4, HDAC-5, and HDAC-6, which are members of the second class of HDACs. Kao et al., Gene & Development 14:55-66 (2000), discloses an additional member of this second class, called HDAC-7. More recently, Hu, E. et al. J. Bio. Chem. 275:15254-13264 (2000) discloses the newest member of the first class of histone deacetylases, HDAC-8. It has been unclear what roles these individual HDAC enzymes play.
These findings suggest that inhibition of HDAC activity represents a novel approach for intervening in cell cycle regulation and that HDAC inhibitors have great therapeutic potential in the treatment of cell proliferative diseases or conditions. To date, few inhibitors of histone deacetylase are known in the art. There is thus a need to identify additional HDAC inhibitors and to identify the structural features required for potent HDAC inhibitory activity.